This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports, by scientific bodies of national or international standing, and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists. Natural change alone would have had a slight cooling effect rather than a warming effect. It is "extremely likely" that this warming arises from "human activities, especially emissions of greenhouse gases" in the atmosphere. Of these, 97% agree, explicitly or implicitly, that global warming is happening and is human-caused. Among the most cited is a 2013 study of nearly 12,000 abstracts of peer-reviewed papers on climate science published since 1990, of which just over 4,000 papers expressed an opinion on the cause of recent global warming. Several studies of the consensus have been undertaken.
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